Strategic decisions of human resource management

Strategic decisions of human resource management Introduction The intention of this report is to analyse and evaluate communication systems which impact upon strategic decisions with reference to modern-day views of human resource management within a medium sized contracting firm. Taking a look at relevant theorists views and whether they would fit in to the medium sized contracting firm model The following areas are to be analysed and considered Types of communication systems: How these impact on strategic decisions Strategic resource management overview Theorists relevant to Human resource management (HRM) How these impact on a medium contracting firm Reference is to be made specifically to theorists models (e.g., Guests 1997 model and Legge 1995) how they compare and weather they fit into the modern HR model Communication methods See Appendix 1. Within the modern working environment the problem for management and employees alike is how to select the most effective method of communicating with other individuals and groups many factors can help to determine this selection: Formal or informal content of message; Speed and delivery and response; Individual or small group or large group as receiver; Cost of communications; Availability of information and communication technology Communication systems There are many communication systems which are relied on within the modern working environment but are we sure that we mean the telephone, meetings, computer or even written these themselves have become mobile with the introduction of the mobile phone and lap top linked to a wifi network constantly giving access to internet and emails. These are the tools for communication. Communication can be broadly classified as verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication includes written and oral communication Non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions and visuals diagrams Verbal Communication Verbal communication can be further divided into written and oral communication. The oral communication refers to the spoken words. Oral communication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over the phone. The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written communication can be by email or written. The effectiveness of written communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and precision of language Nonverbal Communication Non-verbal communication includes overall body language of the person who is speaking, which includes body posture, hand gestures, and overall body movements. The facial expressions also play a major part since facial expressions say a lot. Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and emotions. Its important that the delivery of communication is received and under stood by all subordinates; this will then allow communications to play an active role within strategic decisions. Would this be relevant within a medium sized contracting firm? Most would find it difficult to operate without effective communication. Communication can take various forms as described above but all forms involve the transfer of information from one party to the other. In order for the transfer of information to qualify as communication, the recipient must understand the information conveyed to them. If the recipient does not understand the meaning of the information conveyed to them, communication has not taken place. Communication is the life source of all organisations because organisations involve people. People cannot interact with each other without communication. Internal/Organisational Communication Communication that takes place within an organisation, in addition to the usual face to face, telephone, fax or mail; modern organisations will more often than not use technology to communicate internally. Technology may be used for e-mails or a linked internal communication system such as the intranet which is an internet system designed solely for use by those working within the organisation. External communications conversely external communication is communication between the organisation and those outside the organisation. Modern organisations may design technological systems so that they can communicate with customers and undertake e-Commerce. Alternatively they communicate with other businesses through the internet or similar systems and undertake e-Business. Upward and Downward communication Downward communication is communication created by directors and managers and passed down the hierarchy of workers in the organisation. In traditional organisations this is the preferred method of communication i.e. Managers decide what the systems, rules and procedures will be and then they pass these down to employees they manage and supervise. Downward Communication can increase efficiency by synchronising organisational procedures and can ensure that everybody is working towards the same overall aims and objectives. Types of downward communication include job descriptions, appraisals/evaluations, organisational policy, and organisational systems Effective communication is the foundation for effectiveness (McNamara) experts on organisations; management and leadership avow there cant be too much communication. Leaders and managers have realised that there is a need to effectively convey and receive information, To reiterate (McNamara Carter) subordinates need to be given proper communication from managers, as this is believed to lead to an increase in absenteeism amongst workers thus effecting productivity, there should be two-way communication in an organisation. Its enviable that the Manager should have personal contact with his subordinates. He should clearly communicate goals and policies of the organization to his subordinates and should get feedback on these goals and policies. Feedback plays a very important role in the communication process. It enables us to evaluate the effectiveness of our message. Giving the subordinates chance to provide feedback is important for maintaining an open communication within the organisation. The manager must create an environment that encourages feedback Performance appraisal Performance appraisals the process of obtaining, analysing and recording information about the relative worth of an employee. The focus of the performance appraisal is measuring and improvingthe actual performance of the employee and also the future potential of the employee. Its aim is to measure what an employee does andencourage employee communications about job-related and professional matters. (Harris, F 2006)Forms of communication include coaching, counselling, training and feedback on job performance. Strategic Human resource management What is strategic human resource management? Strategic human resource management (SHRM) could be defined as a process which is constantly evolving within many organisations, and should be constantly reviewed to suite employees and employers needs. Its definition and relationships with other aspects of business planning and strategy is not conclusive and opinion varies between many different theorists Theorists views Strategic HRM is the key to improved business performance within which there is comprehensive coverage of the various definitions and approaches to HRM, strategy and strategic HRM Armstrong, M and Baron, A. (2002) Is this statement a true reflection on what is believed to be the contemporary views of human resource management? Strategic HRM is regarded as a general approach to the strategic management of human resources in harmony with the intentions of the organisation on the future direction it wants to take. Strategic HRM is concerned with longer-term people issues and macro-concerns about structure, quality, culture, values, commitment and matching resources to future need. Boxall and Purcell argue that strategic HRM is concerned with explaining how HRM influences organisational performance. They also point out that strategy is not the same as strategic plans. Strategic planning is the formal process that takes place, usually in larger organisations, defining how things will be done, Purcell, J. (2003) To simplify these statements Strategic HRM is based on HRM principles incorporating the concept of strategy. So if HRM is a rational approach to the management of people, strategic HRM now implies that that is done in a planned way. Individuals, who are highly skilled, highly motivated and have the opportunity to participate within the organization by being given tasks to undertake. However, this will only feed through into higher levels of organisational performance if these individuals have positive management relationships with their superiors in a supportive environment with strong values. All these factors will support the willingness of individuals to perform above the minimum. It also could be said that the case is made for building the worker into the analysis of HRM, on the one hand, by incorporating worker attitudes and behaviour in the study of the HRM-performance relationship, and on the other, by paying serious attention to the association between HRM and worker-related outcomes. Evidence is presented to suggest that worker attitudes and behaviour mediate the HRM-performance relationship and that certain HR practices are associated with higher work and life satisfaction. (Guest, D 1997) Models on Strategic human resource management Human resource policies and practices have been linked with strategic objectives of many organisations. A number of British academics have made major contributions to the concept of HRM and their work is summarized below. Guest, D (1991) has taken the Harvard model and developed it further by defining four policy goals which he believes can be used as testable propositions: 1. Strategic integration: the ability of the organisation to integrate HRM issues into its strategic plans, ensure that the various aspects of HRM cohere and provide for line managers to incorporate an HRM perspective into their decision-making. 2. High commitment: A behavioural commitment to pursue agreed goals and attitudinal commitment reflected in a strong identification with the enterprise. Guest (1989) believes that the driving force behind HRM is the pursuit of competitive advantage in the market-place through provision of high-quality goods and services, through competitive pricing linked to high productivity and through the capacity swiftly to innovate and manage change in response to changes in the market-place or to breakthroughs in research and development. Legge, K (1989) considers that the common themes of typical definitions of HRM are that: Human resource policies should be integrated with strategic business planning and used to reinforce an appropriate (or change an inappropriate) organizational culture, that human resources are valuable and a source of competitive advantage, that they may be tapped most effectively by mutually consistent policies that promote commitment and which, as a consequence, foster a willingness in employees to act flexibly in the interests of the ‘adaptive organisations pursuit of excellence Summary Overall a medium sized contracting firm needs strategic systems in place especially taking into account the current economic climate, situations may arise where downsizing of the company and redundancies that may be prevalent due to the expected down turn in work load. At times of high unemployment, workers are thought to be concerned about losing their jobs and hence more conscientious and tolerant of strict management they become, its important to maintain communication in this situation. As states its important in difficult times for employees to become more flexible and foster willingness (Legge, K 1995) Other areas where lack of communication creates animosity between clients and contracting firm its proven that advising client of their needs and subsequently bring the projects successfully to implementation will help secure a good working relationship. Added values such as back up service of experienced staff and well qualified staff in all the requested areas of the construction programme this fits in with Guests model of giving high-quality goods and services, through competitive pricing linked to high productivity. (Guest, D 1997) If a business has highly motivated team then success will follow, this has to be lead from the top down and strategic integration from HR is paramount in the delivery of success as described in guests theory K, Legge at first contradicts Guests theory with whats known as a hard model theory by stating that employees are a resource just as any other business resource. Thus, human resource should match business needs and help achieve objectives. Management may monitor their performances for recognition and rewards. Furthermore, organizations will always try to acquire them as cheaply as possible, and exploit them to maximise profits. This model may sound less humanistic but the objective of achieving humanism should not compromise the objectives of organisations (Legge 1995). Theorists then began to look at other types of models and agreed that a softer approach was more fitting in certain current climates Harvard Business School developed soft or developmental humanism model, also tak es into consideration integration critical for the development of business strategies. At the same time, it also emphasises on treating people as valued assets. They should be treated as human capital, which is fundamentally different from other business resources. The soft model encourages developing employees so that they become proactive in organizational development and progress (Legge 1995). Many authors question the underlying practical applications of HRM models. Similar concerns are raised about SHRM. Its managerial focus, strategic perspectives and ‘realities‘ of HR practice have been questioned by several writers (Legge 1995; Guest 1997). SHRM is certainly concerned primarily with contributing to the ‘bottom line success of an organisation, which may sometimes involve a unitarist approach to the management of employees. SHRM may also infer a ‘hard HRM focus, which does not sit comfortably with some authors. However, as Legge (1995) points out, †˜If HRM, in either its ‘hard or ‘soft guises, involves the reassertion of managerial prerogative over the labour process, the strategies of flexibility reflect and constitute a path to this, employees as both resourceful humans and human resources Conclusion The above essay has analysed and evaluated various literature of human resource management, strategy and the links between these elements. While there is considerable discussion in relation to organisations using HRM strategically with a view to enhancing their organisation performance the actual implementation seems variable. The review of the literature also suggests there is a multi layer framework in which human resource management is located. (Guest, D. 2002) The relationship between organisations and workers is increasingly secured through different forms of involvement, ranging from an alienative to a moral involvement and from compliance to commitment as the basis for the ongoing attachment. Relationship and the interaction between the worker and employer have focused attention on outcomes. These outcomes can be perceived in terms of whether they are processes, procedures or practices, but at another they can be seen to be a mechanism for securing the objectives (Manning K 2005) Bibliography Books Bratton, J Gold, J (2003), Human resource management theory Practice 3rd edition, New York. Chaffee, E (1985) ‘Three models of strategy Academy of Management Review, London. Foot, M Hook, C. (2005), Introducing Human resource management 4th edition, London Harris, F McCaffer. (2006), Modern Construction Management sixth Edition, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford Price, A (2003), Human resource management in a business context 3rd edition, London Purcell, J. (2003), Strategy and human resource management, London. Mintzberg, H. (1994), The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, Prentice-Hall. Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. (1998), Strategy Safari: A guided tour through the wilds of strategic management, The Free Press. Whittington, R. (2000), What is Strategy And Does It Matter? 2nd edition Thomson Learning. Manning, Dr. K (2005), Strategic Human Resource Management and Performance. Internet McNamara, C 1997 (http://managementmrktng/org) accessed 10th Dec 09 http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=347150 accessed 5th Jan 10 http://www.business.vu.edu.au/Mgt/working_papers/2005/wp6_2005_worland_manning. Accessed 5th Jan 2010 Journal articles Guest, D. E. 1997, ‘Human Resource Management and Performance: A Review and Research Agenda, International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 263-276. Guest, D. 2002, ‘Human Resource Management, Corporate Performance and Employee-Well-Being: Building the Worker into HRM, the Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 44, no. 3. pp. 335-358. Guest, D. E., Conway, N. Dewe, P. 2004, ‘Using Sequential Tree Analysis to Search for ‘Bundles of HR Practices, Human Resource Management Journal, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 79-96. Guest, D. E. Michie, J. Conway, N. Sheehan, M. 2003, ‘Human Resource Management and Corporate Performance in the UK, British Journal of Industrial Relations, vol.41, no. 2, pp. 291-314. Reilly, P. (2008) Strategic HR? Ask yourself the questions.HR Director. No 44, February. Richards, J. (2007) Aligning HR with the business: two steps forward, one step back. IRS Employment Review. No 866 March.

French Essays Egalitarian Political Regimes

French Essays Egalitarian Political Regimes Explain and Discuss the Fragility of Egalitarian Political Regimes, as Represented in BOTH the Lettres Persanes AND the Contrat Social. Though The Spirit of Laws is probably the best-known work of Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, his Lettres Persanes (Persian Letters) is another famous work in which he explores, with perhaps more depth, the notion of equality and egalitarian political rule. A generation later, John Jacques Rousseau would appear on the political landscape and present his own ideas on the same topic. Chief to be explored among his writings will be the Contrat Social (Social Contract) in which Rousseau lays out with some detail a discussion of the nature of egalitarian political regimes and explores various strengths and weaknesses of them. Montesquieu and the Fragility of Egalitarianism In the beginning of the 89th letter, Montesquieu claims that â€Å"A Paris rà ¨gnent la libertà © et l’à ©galità ©.† Birthrights, social ranks, and even military victories did not set men apart (in terms of class distinctions) in Paris during his writing. This was a thing to be praised by Montesquieu. He saw too much in the world that lent itself away from egalitarianism, at least insofar as the right of persons to be equal is concerned. It will be beneficial here to take a moment to set up Montesquieu’s views on the republic to better lay a foundation for his comments on equality. In Book 11 of the Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu explores the (then) unique situation in England of a monarchy controlled, to an extent, by a constitution, and it that portion of the Spirit of the Laws Montesquieu is chiefly impressed by and concerned with the Englishman’s â€Å"liberty.† As regards the very nature of a republic, Montesquieu argues in the Spirit of t he Laws that there are three basic types of governmental systems. The despot rules by inculcating fear in the people. The monarch does better and rules by a sense of honor and by â€Å"fixed established laws.† Both of these types of governing are fairly stable. One does not need to necessarily think of them as intrinsically fragile in the sense in which, say, the last political option (i.e., the republic) may be thought to be fragile. The despot, so long as he maintains fear amongst the peoples, has nothing to fear himself. Apparently for Montesquieu, it is the monarchy which is the first and primary type of government. He writes in Letter 131 of the Lettres Persanes, â€Å"Les premiers gouvernements du monde furent monarchiques.† Coming on the heels of this original type of government would be both the despotic rule and the republic, the latter of which comes by â€Å"chance,† he indicates. Apparently, despotism amounts to little more than a degeneration of an original monarchy. But, the republic is a genuine advancement of the Greeks. However, this advancement brings with it an intrinsic tendency toward reversion to that which preceded it, either monarchy or despotism, and this fact may be due to the complexity of the republic in both its nature and principles. For Montesquieu, one of the things that may typify the fragile nature of the republic is that it â€Å"cannot survive without what Montesquieu calls political virtue.† It is this requirement that the citizens must embody this political virtue (without which the republic could not endure) that lends to the fragile nature of republics. If the people cease persisting in this virtue, the republic could not endure, for the republic exists and continues only so long as the habits and eventual character of political virtue are exemplified in the people. In the republic, there is no one-to-one correspondence with what exists in despotism or a monarchy: a strong central authority. Therefore, the people must, by loving egalitarianism and the laws, arrange a situation for themselves wherein the needs of the good are served, even if at the expense of the needs of the many. This is exactly what Greece did, he argues, and it is incumbent upon any subsequent attempts at a republic to do the same. â€Å"L’amour de la libertà ©, la haine des rois, conserva longtemps la Grà ¨ce dans l’indà ©pendance, et à ©tendit au loin le gouvernement rà ©publicain.† Rousseau and the Fragility of Egalitarianism One could hardly resist beginning the discussion on Rousseau with his famous opening to chapter one of the Contrat Social. â€Å"Lhomme est nà © libre, et partout il est dans les fers.† How this particular situation came to be, Rousseau does not attempt to answer. Rather, he focuses his attention on how it is that man can get back to his original (or perhaps â€Å"primal†) state of freedom. If man in a state of servitude obeys his masters, he does well. However, if he can break free from that state, he does better still because to be free is man’s natural and original state, seen most evidently within the rites of passage intrinsic to family life. Although it could not be rightly said that Rousseau takes no points of departure from the thought of Montesquieu, there are nevertheless significant points of agreement between them on the idea of the republic. Rousseah offers as his main contribution to the discussion over the republic that a return to the ancient (i.e., Greek) polis is the most advisable course of action. Yet, an intrinsic tension to this suggestion is that Rousseau simultaneously advocates the idea of the â€Å"natural law† quite strongly. According to Helena Rosenblatt, for Rousseau the natural law is a very self-interested concept, which is at least prima facie at odds with the republican ideal of each person being grounded in virtue and community as that which adheres the republic together and maintains it. The more refined concept of the â€Å"general will† complicates the matter further and makes egalitarianism a la republicanism an even more fragile thing. Rousseau’s â€Å"General Will† In his writings prior to the Social Contract, Rousseau had explicitly indicated that he denied that man was naturally and easily a sociable creature. No, man’s first inclinations are not toward the public good, but in the direction of particular self-interests and this is evident by the historical facts that â€Å"les longs dà ©bats, les dissensions, le tumulte, annoncent lascendant des intà ©rà ªts particuliers et le dà ©clin de lEtat.† So, what takes place amidst the social contract is the necessity of all citizens when laying down public policy to not act in merely self-interested ways. The good of the many, the common good, was to be the overriding concern of all citizens in this regard, and this is the â€Å"general will† of Roussea, which he explores and elaborates in great throughout the Social Contract. But, what makes this concept of the â€Å"general will† even more tense and lending to the creation of a fragile situation for egalitarianism i s the paradoxical idea related to literally enforcing that citizens act in accord with the general will. The general will is not merely reducible to the â€Å"will of all people combined.† No, it is the â€Å"right† will which ever seeks the good of the whole State and never acts in a merely self-interested way. It is basically the will of God then, which must ever be right and, since God is omnibenevolent and always has the interests of everyone in mind, this is in line with the general will as Rousseau explicates it here. He writes, â€Å"Afin donc que le pacte social ne soit pas un vain formulaire, il renferme tacitement cet engagement qui seul peut donner de la force aux autres, que quiconque refusera dobà ©ir à   la volontà © gà ©nà ©rale y sera contraint par tout le corps: ce qui ne signifie autre chose sinon quon le forcera dà ªtre libre.† This is the key to the whole enterprise. It prevents the social contract from becoming, as he says, â€Å"un vain formulaire† (an empty formula). But, of course, although such an aspect of the overall contract is certainly sensible, how it is appropriated lends itself to fragility. The line is not always so clear when one is acting merely in his own self-interest and when he is acting in respect to the common good (or both simultaneously, which would apparently not violate the general will). It is not necessarily contradictory in its premise, but it is certainly paradoxical, as Rousseau surely felt. Conclusion Both Montesquieu and Rousseau in their respective days were vastly aware with the attending problems associated with the reintroduction of the ancient ideas of the republic and egalitarianism. However, they each firmly believed that whatever problems may accompany the advent of such in Modernity, it would certainly be worth it. For both of them, as most Westerners today would greatly sympathize, any form of egalitarianism via a republic, whatever fragility may accompany it, would be greatly preferable to either a monarchy or (especially) a despotic State. Works Consulted Krause, Sharon. The Politics of Distinction and Disobedience: Honor and the Defense of Liberty in Montesquieu, Polity 31, 3 (1999): 469-99. Grant, Ruth Weissbourd. Hypocrisy and Integrity : Machiavelli, Rousseau, and the Ethics of Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. Morris, Christopher W. The Social Contract Theorists : Critical Essays On Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. Lanham, Md.: Rowman Littlefield, 1999. Riesenberg, Peter N. Citizenship in the Western Tradition : Plato to Rousseau. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Rosenblatt, Helena. Rousseau and Geneva : From the First Discourse to the Social Contract, 1749-1762. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Shklar, Judith. The Spirit of the Laws: necessity and freedom. In Montesquieu, pp. 93-110. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.

Tennis Made Easy :: essays research papers

When surfing the Internet, eventually winding up at tennis4you.com, I found something called the â€Å"Lesson Lounge† which has instructional articles on the game of tennis. My particular article discusses a very crucial part of the game, and also a difficult one, the first serve. The reason this drew my attention is because this is a major weakness in my already pathetic tennis repertoire. By reading the article, I hoped to find strategy to learn from, and eventually, with practice, to improve from. In the article, they explain how the first serve can become â€Å"†¦someone’s biggest weapon making someone else’s worst nightmare!† That, not only can one use a power serve or a placement serve to attack their opponents, but that working out is not even necessary to do so. The tennis serve can have significantly more power by using â€Å"†¦legs, shoulder rotation, and stomach muscles†¦Ã¢â‚¬  during one’s motion. They stress that since you have two serves, it is crucial to take a chance and make sure your first serve is NOT â€Å"†¦easily attackable†. From here, they lead into more complicated serving techniques that involve the type of hit- such as the flat, slice, kick, and topspin serves. Although I am not good enough to test them out, through time, they could certainly help someone with an interest in tennis who is willing to practice. After establishing the four types, the writer goes more in depth to differences between power and non-power serves. With power serves, they emphasize the importance of rhythm, significance of keeping your opponent guessing and lastly, the need to hit it in bounds. They continue to say that, obviously, no matter how hard your serve is, it is useless if it cannot land in bounds. As far as non-power serves, they speak of smaller players and how technique and mechanisms such as spin. Another main point here is that one must serve deep into the service box.

Basic Transistor Physics Essay -- physics electronics transistor

The first transistor was demonstrated on Dec. 23, 1947, at Bell Labs by William Shockley. This new invention consisting of P type and N type semiconductive materials (in this case germanium) has completely revolutionized electronics. Transistors quickly replaced vacuum tubes in almost all applications (most notably those in discrete logic). Today when we think of transistors the first thing that comes to mind is computers. Advances in transistor technology and manufacturing processes as well as new materials being used for the semiconductor matrix and wiring have led to smaller, faster, cheaper, lower power transistors. Some of the basic principles behind semiconductor behavior and the restrictions currently faced by modern transistors will be discussed in the following pages. Transistors are composed of a P type (positively doped) and N type (negatively doped) semiconductor material. These P-N junctions are the heart of both BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors) and FETs (Field Effect Transistors). BJTs have a physical connection between they current controlling input (base) and the input and output (collector and emitter). This results in a trickle current into the base. FETs have a physical separation between the control (gate) and the input and output (drain and source). BJT and FET transistors are used in virtually every electronic device requiring current regulation or amplification. They make it very easy to precisely control power to a device reliably and with much greater efficiency than other methods. Another common use of transistors is their role in discrete logic. First used in DTL (Diode Transistor Logic) transistors compact nature and high switching speeds lend themselves well to use in logic ICs. In ... ...er clock speed operation than the G4 processor and will include all the latest fabrication developments when released. Processor core voltage for this chip will be as low as 1.2v allowing a higher transistor count with very low power dissipation. Pentium 4 core voltage is in the range of 1.55v. Smaller, faster, cheaper...transistors aren't quite as boring as you thought huh? Bibliography 1. IBM Copper Technoglogy http://www.chips.ibm.com/ 2. AMD http://www.amd.com/ 3. Intel Semiconductor Technology http://www.intel.com/ 4. Motorola PowerPC Division http://www.motorola.com/ 5. Transistor History 101 http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra1/xstrhist.html 6. Britney's Guide to Semiconductor Physics http://britneyspears.ac/lasers.htm 7. The Mac Address http://www.themacaddress.com/ 8. Electromigration http://www.ifw-dresden.de/ifs/31/gfa/em_e.htm

Moot Court Outline

General Outline of a Moot Court Argument INTRO May it please the court, my name is _____ and I represent the Petitioner/Respondent __(name)___. [REBUTTAL REQUEST & PROCEDURAL BLURB (for Petitioner ONLY)] With the court’s permission, I would like to reserve 2 minutes for rebuttal. Thank you. This case is on appeal from the District/Circuit Court (name of court). The District/Circuit Court denied Petitioner’s request for _____, holding _____. ROADMAP Your honors, _______ is a violation of international law and we ask that you ________ for (the following) two/three reasons: 1.First, [substantive legal argument – strongest point] 2. Second [substantive legal argument] 3. And Third, as a matter of public policy OR as public policy dictates, [policy argument] ARGUMENT 1. With respect to the first point your honors . . . OR First, . . . CONCLUSION Since [first point], [second point], and [third point], Petitioner/Respondent respectfully requests that this Court finds __ __ a violation of international law. Thank you. [REBUTTAL (for Petitioner ONLY)] Respondent made one/two point(s) that I would like to address. (First) Respondent stated that . . However, . . . OR Respondent contends that _____. However, . . . MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS – For Rebuttal: o Attack misstatements and glossed-over weaknesses. o Address concerns of the court. o One to two points – most important point first. – If you obviously and/or materially misspeak, say â€Å"rather, ____† OR â€Å"pardon me your honors, what I mean to say is ____† and correct yourself. – If you are really hard-pressed for a transition, say, â€Å"which brings me to my second/third point† and find a way to fit what you were talking about into that point. If you are going to quote a case, drop the case language verbatim into your outline and KNOW the pin cite. – If you aren’t sure what the judge is asking, seek clarification. o This can also be used as a stall tactic if you are unsure how to answer the question. o Say something like, â€Å"Your honor, I want to make certain I understand your question, would you mind regarding-phrasing? † – DON’T: o Say, â€Å"I don’t know† in response to a question. ? If you don’t know the answer, say something more like, â€Å"Your honor, I am unable to fully answer your question at this time.However, I would be more than happy to submit a supplemental brief on the issue/matter/case. † o Smile or laugh or otherwise lose composure during argument (unless the judges are smiling and laughing and you feel it would be inappropriate to NOT smile and laugh). o Take a pen up to the podium. – DO: o Outline your argument! ? Try to reduce your argument to 2-3 pages. ? Use headings and sub-heading. Bold, capitalize, etc. for ease of reference. ? Use a manila folder to organize your arguments. †¢ Take nothing but that manila folder up to the podium. Listen carefully to opposing counsel’s arguments and the judges’ questions. ? Take verbatim notes of both. Quote and/or directly address if appropriate. o Know, in advance of the argument, which points you are willing to concede (if any). o Preface your answers with the following: ? Yes your honor, however . . . ? No your honor. †¢ Be cautious using this one – it can appear less-than deferential. ? I (respectfully) disagree with your honor’s characterization/construction of . . . o Have your introduction, [procedural blurb], roadmap, and conclusion memorized.

Cambodians Under Pol Pot

Cambodians Under Pol Pot Cambodia, a small country just west of Vietnam, gained independence after nearly 100 years of French rule. They first faced the problem of Communism during the Vietnamese Civil War. They remained neutral by contributing equally to North and South Vietnam. North Vietnam was a Communist country while South Vietnam was advised by the U. S. The Khmer Rouge, a group of Communist rebels, was led by Pol Pot. They soon took over Cambodia, killing hundreds of thousands of people. They transformed the country into a Communist society. The people of Cambodia rebelled because of the harsh dictatorship.Within days of the Khmer Rouge taking over, changes were made. New policies were created stating that the entire population should become a collective federation of farmers. All educated people (doctors, lawyers, teachers, and scientists) were murdered. Schools, factories, and hospitals were shut down. Any and all kinds of political rights were eliminated as well. The peopl e of Cambodia were purposely placed in working camps as far away from their homes as possible, working for extremely long hours and receiving minimal rations. Racism was also a problem. All Chinese, Vietnamese, and Thai’s were murdered.Certain religions were also not acceptable such as Christianity and Muslim. The children of Cambodia were indoctrinated causing them to become extremely brainwashed and almost everyone was a victim of torture as well. There was very little involvement by the U. S. to stop the genocide in Cambodia. This was because the United States was already involved in the Vietnam War and they were facing many social and political pressures. The only reason they were involved was to stop the spread of communism. Finally, the Vietnamese invaded and overthrew the Khmer Rouge.They immediately installed a less repressive government but this didn’t stop the fighting. They only wanted to take over Cambodia so that their Communist society would grow. The Vie tnamese eventually withdrew and Cambodia adopted a democratic constitution which held free elections. The economy and society of Cambodia has never truly recovered from the genocide. Although Cambodia has made many attempts to change its economy, it is still based mainly upon agricultural development because Pol Pot’s policies destroyed their foreign aid and all of Cambodia’s educated professionals were killed.

Automobile? The Main Source of Pollution? Essay

Innovation and creativity, these are the very benchmarks that pave the way in producing new technology that governs the very lives of our future. But the question is, is it doing more harm than good to society? To verify the nature and essence of this query, I will be inquiring and delving into the world of automobiles and motorcycles. On one hand, I balance the modern wonders that craft the very definitions of convenience and comfort. While on the other, I hold the unfathomable realities that draw the line between useful and harmful. Therefore, let it be stated that I have come to an understanding that both automobiles and motorcycles pose a substantial threat the world is constantly ignoring.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In probing this discussion, I will begin by first illustrating the statistics on ownership of automobiles and motorcycles made in the United States. Then, I shall be focusing on the comparison between the subjects and issues that society deals with regard to automobiles and motorcycles by citing some examples in Southeast Asia. Lastly, I will emphasize the known facts and matters that give impact on the current view of automobiles in the society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To start with, it is acknowledged that present ownership of the automobiles is increasing day by day.  According to the US Bureau of Transit Statistics for 2004 there are a total of 243,023,485 registered passenger vehicles in the U.S. of which 136,430,651 (56.13%) are classified as cars. While 91,845,327 (37.79%) are classified under 2 axles and 4 tire vehicles, presumably SUV’s and pick-up trucks. Yet another 6,161,028 (2.53%) are classified as vehicles with 2 axles and 6 tires and 2,010,335 (0.82%) are classified as trucks in combination. In addition to that, there are approximately 5,780,870 motorcycles in the U.S. in 2004, which accounts for 2.37% of all registered passenger vehicles. With the increasing number of automobiles yearly, there is a plan to see an effective way of reducing the emissions from cars through hybrids, diesel and other form of technology.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recent studies show that automobile emissions are not as bad as motorcycles emissions. Usually, motorcycles are not the major form of transportations in developed countries. Astonishingly, the American Chemical Society reports that motorcycles collectively emit 16 times more hydrocarbons, three times more carbon monoxide and a â€Å"disproportionately high† amount of other air pollutants compared to passenger cars (Science Daily, 2008). The study, by the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, has found both two- and four-cycle motorcycle engines emitted significantly more of these pollutants than automobile engines. Given this data, we can now see the ineffectiveness of motorcycles. Given the sitting capacity of a car compared to a motorcycle, a car is able to hold twice as much sitting capacity compared to motorcycles. In developing countries such as Indonesia, the number of motorcycles is overwhelming compared to the number of automobiles. Being born in Surabaya, Indonesia, I have witnessed some of the worst air pollution that I have ever encountered. It has been so bad to an extent that I can see dust on my front porch every ten minutes upon mopping it clean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although, there have been seen steps taken to reduce the emissions in automobiles, regulations has been a bit late for motorcycles.   This does not take into account the other subjects related to pollution such as air contamination, water contamination, soil contamination, and solid waste mishandling ( L. Gari, 475 – 488).Unlike automobile emissions that have been regulated only after 1970s, the motorcycle emissions have only been regulated only after 1999. This technological advancement has made motorcycles less harmful to the environment. Thus, future bikes may have emissions from new motorcycles at a same level of emissions as cars. For example, the 1000cc Suzuki V-Strom produced in 2002, equipped with a regulated catalyzer, oxygen sensor and fuel injection, complies with 2003 emissions limits and is very close to the 2006 ones (Motorcycle Emission, 2008). It is also said that they have reduced 60% of the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons emissions of new four-stroke bikes produced from the 1st April 2003 and reinforcing it on 1st January 2006. This will in turn apply a further 50% reduction compared to the 2003 limits. Two-stroke engines will see their emissions output reduce by 30% for carbon oxide and 70% for hydrocarbons. Hopefully, motorcycles will have low level of oxides of nitrogen and limits will remain the same for 2003 giving the time for the industry to achieve more drastic nitrogen oxide measures for 2006. With this at hand, Indonesia air pollution would be drastically reduced.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Automobiles and motorcycles affect our environment and push them into critical conditions. There are even unusual emissions that are produced in the atmosphere (Beychok, 29 – 36). Pollutants from automobiles are the major causes for green house effects and other environmental pollutions. Although Bangkok is praised with their three-wheeled vehicles whose name comes from the sputtering sound produced by their horribly polluting two-stroke engines, â€Å"tuk-tuks† look like beat-up golf carts with roofs and backseats and function as inner-city taxis (Hertsgaard, 1999). Unfortunately, â€Å"tuk-tuks† and motorbikes, in terms of mobility, are undercut by their abnormal tailpipe exhaust that burn a fuel that is part gasoline, part benzene. Benzene of course causes cancer and each flick of a driver’s wrist sends thick puffs of bluish-white smoke into the already soup like air (Hertsgaard, 1999). Though the presence of â€Å"tuk-tuks† created many jobs as a â€Å"tuk-tuk† driver for the people in Bangkok, it also cost them their health as prolong breathing of benzene causes cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nowadays, diesel cars are cleaner than the petrol cars. Modern technologies have been applied in order to reduce the level of emission from cars. For example, carbon dioxide emissions are directly proportional to fuel consumption, and as diesel cars use 30 to 40% less fuel and they emit 30 to 40% less carbon dioxide than petrol cars (Vasic and Weilenmann, 149 – 154).   On the other hand, natural gas and LPG cars are actually quite fuel inefficient, if otherwise cleaner burning, and so produce more CO2 than diesel. Diesel engines produce virtually no carbon monoxide.   Emissions of nitrous oxides can be effectively reduced in both petrol and diesel cars by use of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).   EGR reduces the combustion temperature to below the point where nitrogen effectively burns. Hydrocarbon emissions are contained in petrol engine emissions much more than in diesel engine emissions.   Benzene is also present in the fumes which can be smelt when filling up with petrol at a service station; however this is not a problem with diesel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Personally, I strongly feel that it is necessary for everyone to get a car since it has a viable use in the lives of ordinary men and women. Moreover, cars have been viewed as a twentieth-century technology (Hertsgaard, 1999). Since the invention of automobiles, more and more industries associated with it have begun to expand. This in turn provides enormous employment opportunities to the people. With that, countries such as Thailand, China and Bangkok have soon started to welcome foreign automobile industries to invest in order to boost their economic progress. One great example of this particular event is the success story of Thailand. Over the past two decades, Thailand’s per capita income in 1991 was U.S$ 1,570—a stunning six fold increase over the 1971 figure of U.S$271 making Thailand an apparent economic success story (Hertsgaard, 1999). With a sudden massive economic growth in an automobile industry as have been seen, there comes a price that everyone has to pay.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, not only automobile’s emissions is held scapegoat to many people around the world   for global warming and the increase of greenhouse gases, certain factors such as the massive motorcycles emissions are also partly to blame. Both the automobile and motorcycles affect our environment and push them into critical conditions such as the green house effects and other environmental pollutions. Overall, I agree with Hertsgaard when he made a   strong point that â€Å"proponents of the car like to point out, as the Mobil Corporation did in a 1995 advertisement in the New York Times, that the cars and skies in the United States are much cleaner now than they were a quarter of a century ago†(Hertsgaard, 1999). This statement he makes inspires the entire environmentalist out there that their efforts have not gone too waste. WORKS CITED ScienceDaily.Amounts of Air Pollutants. March 21, 2008   http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2006/01/060101155000.htm U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. â€Å"Automobile Emissions: An Overview.† August, 1994 1-5. 21 March, 2008 http://www.epa.gov/OMS/consumer/05-autos.pdf Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). â€Å"A Database for Dioxin and Furan Emissions from Refuse Incineratorsâ€Å". Atmospheric Environment 21 (1): 29-36 Christi, â€Å"The Truth About Diesel Emissions† Fred’s Tdi Forum 21 March, 2008   http://www.stealthtdi.com/Emissions.html Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA). â€Å"Estimated National Average Vehicle Emissions Rates per Vehicle by Vehicle Type using Reformulated Gasoline and Diesel.†U.S. Department of Transportation (US DOT) Nov. 29, 2007. 21 March, 2008 . Hertsgaard , Mark . Earth Odyssey: Around the World in Search of Our Environmental Future . New York: Broadway Books, 1999. Gari. â€Å"Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Centuryâ€Å", Environment and History 8 (4), 2002, pp. 475-488 â€Å"Motorcycle Emissions – Bikes Go Greener.† British Motorcyclists Federation 30 Sep, 2004.  21 March, 2008 http://www.bmf.co.uk/pages/briefing_room_archive.php?fullstory=432 â€Å"Passenger Vehicles in the United States.† Wikipedia 27 February 2008 21 March, 2008 . Vasic, Ana -Marija and Martin Weilenmann. â€Å"Comparison of Real-World Emissions.† Environmental Science&Technology 402006 149-154. 21 March, 2008 . Self-evaluation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Upon starting this essay, I experienced several setbacks and challenges. It took me a total of 3 days of researching and 2 days to complete the essay. The first thing which I did in this essay was the search for good source information for this research. This was hard as I have to be able to find data which preferably have a range of 10 years. Secondly, I read the Top Ten Tips on the transition and brilliant beginnings and I really can see myself being a better writer with it. The last and final step was for me to put all the information down and start writing followed by proofreading. For this research only managed to do a single draft and I did not get the help of any body except the tools of Microsoft words such as its thesaurus and dictionary. I believe that my strong and insightful data on the emission outputs of automobiles and motorcycles are the strengths of my essay. In addition to that I believe that my essay is weak because of proofreading problems. One of the primary problems that I have with this essay was that I have to retype everything again due to a computer problem. The essay was supposed to be done on my lap top. However, it crashed and I am unable to backup my data causing me to lose come information that can help me with this essay. One thing that I would do next time is definitely to start earlier and have a visit to Dr Lankford office to ask him on his views on my current ideas for the essay. I would definitely rewrite this essay for the second time in hope to have at least a B+/- for this course as it depended on this essay. References Vehicle ratios since 1990 Year Motor vehicles Increase in vehicles % Growth    1990 189 2 +1.01    1991 188 -1 -0.52    1992 190 2 +1.06    1993 194 4 +2.10    1994 198 4 +2.06    1995 202 4 +2.02    1996 206 4 +1.98    1997 208 4 +1.94    1998 208 0 +/-0    1999 216 8 +3.84    2000 218 2 +0.92    2001 226 8 +3.66    2002 230 4 +1.76    2003 231 1 +0.43    All numbers in millions; SOURCE: US Department of Transportation    Estimated National Average Vehicle Emissions Rates per Vehicle by Vehicle Type using Reformulated Gasoline and Diesel (Grams per mile)      Ã‚   1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 RFG (assuming 100% RFG)                                        Light-duty vehicles                                        Exhaust HC 1.45 1.28 1.15 1.04 0.97 0.84 0.76 0.68 0.62 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 Nonexhaust HC 0.89 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.47 Total HC 2.34 2.15 2.01 1.88 1.78 1.48 1.39 1.29 1.21 1.12 1.02 0.921 0.852 Exhaust CO 22.78 20.84 19.43 18.25 17.21 15.36 14.68 13.88 13.17 12.49 11.44 9.81 9.29 Exhaust NOx 1.78 1.64 1.55 1.46 1.35 1.24 1.19 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.90 0.77 0.72 DIESEL                                        Light-duty vehicles                                        Exhaust HC 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.80 0.76 0.73 0.73 0.60 0.58 0.48 0.36 Exhaust CO 1.69 1.73 1.76 1.78 1.79 1.78 1.75 1.73 1.74 1.59 1.57 1.41 1.21 Exhaust NOx 1.89 1.89 1.88 1.86 1.85 1.81 1.72 1.62 1.54 1.43 1.32 1.11 0.85 KEY:  CO = carbon monoxide; HC = hydrocarbon; NOx = nitrogen oxide; RFG = reformulated gasoline. SOURCE:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory, personal communication, Nov. 29, 2007.